1 

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RATIONALISM AND  

CRITICAL RATIONALISM: IMPLICATIONS FOR GENERAL STUDIES 

AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

Samuel Otu ISHAYA, Ph.D. 

Abstract 

Much has been said and written about the concept of national development in Nigeria: 

lectures, workshops, seminars and conferences have continued to be organized for the 

purposes of articulating justifiable foundation upon which the structures of the nation's 

development can be laid. National Development refers to an increase or expansion of 

the total volume of production of goods and service of a country accompanied by 

improvement in the scientific and social lives of the people. It is however a fact that no 

sustainable development will take place in any society until a change occurs in the 

fundamental constitution of the people's mode of thought. This paper holds that the 

individual is of first importance than any development plan. Thus, the most important 

task of tertiary education in developing countries today should be to produce graduates 

sound in reasoning. Rene Descartes and Karl Popper developed models that should aid 

the individual to attain reasonableness. The paper submits that for sustainable 

development to take root in the nation, the course content of philosophy and human 

existence in the general studies curriculum of Nigeria's tertiary institutions should be 

strengthened by providing the right and necessary environment to study that will reflect 

the importance of reason over matter. 

Keywords: Philosophy; Rationalism; Critical rationalism; General studies, National 

development 

Introduction 

            Questions about the status and extent of our knowledge of the world, of ourselves 

and other people including particular branches of knowledge such as history, 

mathematics and the sciences have occupied the attention of philosophers for nearly as 

long as philosophy itself. Samuel Stumpf (1994) captured it succinctly when he averred 

that 'philosophy began when human's curiosity caused them to ask – what are things 

really like? And how can we explain the process of change in things?' What prompted 

these questions according to Stumpf was the gradual recognition that things are not 

exactly what they seem to be; that appearance often differs from reality (p. 1). This is 

so because we often fall into error even with regard to things for which we claim certain 

knowledge. For example, various theories about the nature of the universe which were 



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once held to be established truths have today been discarded on account of being either 

inadequate or no longer tenable or completely misleading.  

            Such inadequate and misleading truths caused Rene Descartes (1997) to take 

another look at the knowledge claims of his day and declared that “…what I take to be 

gold and diamonds is perhaps no more than copper and glass” (p. 72). This kind of 

observation poses serious questions to claims to knowledge and questions the veracity 

of that which we think we know because even seeming obvious facts could possibly be 

illusions. 

            To overcome illusions in knowledge acquisition, Descartes embarked on a 

rigorous methodic doubt with the aim of constructing a firm foundation based on 

indubitable truth for the sciences and for social development. To achieve this objective, 

he decided for a whole-sale rejection of long held truths. According to Stumpf (1994) , 

Since Descartes' system of truth would have to be derived from his own rational powers, 

he would no longer rely on previous philosophers for his ideas nor would he accept any 

ideas as true only because it was expressed by someone with authority. Neither the 

authority of Aristotle's great reputation nor the authority of the church could suffice to 

produce the kind of certainty he sought (p. 238).  

 The outcome of this decision was rationalism. Rationalism is a theory that emphasizes 

reason as the basis for certain knowledge rather experience. Karl Popper (2002) on the 

other hand did not completely disagree with Descartes: for him reason is important in 

knowledge development but affirms that “there are no ultimate sources of knowledge; 

every source, every suggestion is welcome; and every source; every suggestion is open 

to criticism” (p. 35). This is the crux of his theory of critical rationalism. Critical 

rationalism advocates continuous criticism, falsification and refutation of our 

knowledge claims. The seeming differences between Descartes and Popper concerning 

the certainty or otherwise of our knowledge claims; and its implication as tools for 

sustainable development in the physical and social sciences informed the need for a 

comparative study of these theories. This paper believes that both theories are crucial 

for all-round development of the nation but argues that the method of impartation used 

in teaching Philosophy and Human Existence be strengthened to emphasize 

rationality/openness over and above indoctrination/dogmatism. And if the purpose of 

creating the general studies unit in the nations' universities would be achieved; then its 

usefulness in arousing curiosity and wonder which are essential ingredients for scientific 

and technological development of any nation should be emphasized. For, according to 

Uduigwomen (1992), “the aim of the general studies courses is to encourage broader 

knowledge as opposed to narrowness of knowledge in intellectual specialization” (p. 

IV).  A broad-minded individual is therefore a potential agent for change and 

development because he/she is equipped to take dispassionate look at throbbing 

existential problems with logical reasonableness. The paper will argue that for 

sustainable development to take root in the nation; the course content of philosophy and 

logic, and the history and philosophy of science in the general studies curriculum of 

Nigerian universities should be strengthened by providing the right atmosphere and 



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necessary environment to study that will reflect the very importance of reason over 

matter. 

Rationalism 

            Dissatisfaction with current realities induces psychological restiveness that 
produces doubt, curiosity and inquisitiveness. Rationalism is a product of mental 
dissatisfaction and it holds that knowledge could be reached through 
'logicomathematical' reasoning. Rationalists maintain that reason alone is capable of 
leading one to certain knowledge (Ozumba: 2000: 47).  

The programme of rationalism according to Stumpf (1994) was to provide philosophy 

with the exactness of mathematics (p. 235). Rationalists believe that the mind of an 

individual is structured in such a way that simply by operating according to the 

appropriate method, it can discover the nature of the universe. They believe that reality 

has an intrinsically logical structure and because of this, they argue that certain truths 

exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. 

            The initiator of modern rationalism is Rene Descartes. Having graduated from 

one of the best schools of his era and seeing himself among the class of the learned, he 

was embarrassed at the discovery of errors in things he had learned and subsequently 

became doubtful of their certainties. He came to the conclusion that he had advanced no 

farther in his attempt at learning than the discovery at every turn of his own ignorance 

(Descartes, 1997: p. 73). He thus embarked on a program of self-discovery through 

which he can establish a firm foundation for indubitable and certain knowledge 

especially in the sciences. The outcome was his system of doubt known as the methodic 

doubt.  

            Using this method, Descartes (1997) vowed to dispense with all his previous 

learning; arguing that the confusion in the sciences arose from the fact that they had 

been built up by many people over a long period of time. Insisting that there is usually 

no order or plan in houses or cities built by successive generations in contradistinction 

to those that are the work of one man. He therefore decided that the best way to start 

was to make a clean sweep of the old and begin anew. Asserting: 

But as regards all the opinions which up to this time I had 

embraced, I thought I could not do better than endeavor once 

for all to sweep them completely away, so that they might later 

on be replaced, either by others which were better, or by the 

same, when I had made them conform to the uniformity of a 

rational scheme. And I firmly believed that by this means I 

should succeed in directing my life much better than if I had only 

built on old foundations, and relied on principles of which I 

allowed myself to be in youth persuaded without having inquired 

into their truth (p. 79).    

Descartes' desire to build a new foundation made by himself had some implications 

which he was prepared to surmount. One of such implications was the method by which 



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to begin the construction of his foundation. But first, he outlined basic rules and maxims 

that should guide the enterprise. The rules include:  

1, Never to accept anything as true if there is no evident knowledge of it being so.  

2, To divide each difficulty under examination into as many parts possible as might be 

necessary for its adequate solution.  

3, To conduct thoughts in such order that by commencing with simple and easy to know 

objects, one might ascend little by little to the knowledge of the more complex.  

4, In every case, to make enumerations so complete and review so general that one is 

assured      nothing was omitted.  

For the maxims he vowed:  

1, To obey the laws and customs of his country.  

2, To be as firm and resolute in his actions.  

3, To try always to conquer himself rather than fortune; and  

4, To review the occupations of men and chose the best (Descartes, 1997: p. 85).    

With these rules and maxims in place, Descartes averred that the chief ground of his 

satisfaction with this method was the assurance he had of thereby exercising his reason 

in all matters, if not with absolute perfection, at least with the greatest attainable by him. 

Besides, he was conscious that by its use, his mind was gradually being inured to clearer 

and more distinct conception of matter. Thus, with the methodic doubt and the rules 

guiding it, Descartes was sure of arriving at certain and indubitable truth in the sciences 

or any area of knowledge. Descartes' programme of philosophy 'revolutionized' the 

study of philosophy in the 17th century; leading to the birth of 'modern philosophy' and 

earned him the sobriquet - father of modern philosophy (Stumpf, 1994: p. 236). 

Critical Rationalism 

            Critical Rationalism is a theory developed by Karl Popper to answer the question 

'how can we detect and eliminate error?' For him, the best way to answer this question 

is by criticizing the theories and guesses of others (Popper, 2002: p. 34). Critical 

rationalists hold that scientific theories or any claim to knowledge should be subjected 

to tests which may falsify them. Popper (1971) regards the critical attitude as the most 

important virtue those seeking knowledge could possess; calling criticism the life blood 

of all rational thought. He made the point that all criticism consists in pointing out 

contradictions or discrepancies; that scientific progress consists in pointing out 

contradictions wherever they may be found (p. 39).  

Falsificationism  

           Critical rationalism is hinged on the principle of falsification. Popper (2002) 

opines that if a theory is to be scientific, then it must be possible, in theory, for it to be 

falsified. The falsification principle operates by conjectures and refutations. By 

conjectures, Popper means unjustified anticipations, guesses and tentative solutions to 

problem. For him, Knowledge, especially the scientific knowledge progresses by 



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conjectures. These conjectures are then controlled by attempts to refute or falsify them 

(p. IX). According to Chalmers (1990: 38), in falsificationism, some theories can be 

shown to be false by an appeal to the results of observation and experiment. A theory is 

falsifiable if there exists a logically possible observation statement or set of observation 

statements that are inconsistent with it, that is, which if established as true would falsify 

the hypothesis. For example, the statement that 'it is raining' is liable to falsification if 

on observation it is discovered that it is not raining. The fact that it is not raining falsifies 

the initial statement that 'it is raining'. 

Comparing Rationalism and Critical Rationalism 

            The differences between Descartes' rationalism and Popper's critical rationalism 

are hinged on the certainty or otherwise of a given knowledge claim – old or new. While 

Descartes uses his own rational powers to derive his system of truth; Popper suspends 

judgment on any knowledge claim until it passes through severe critical examination. 

Also, while Descartes tries to achieve certainty of knowledge through the exactness of 

mathematics; Popper (1972) maintains that no one can be certain of any knowledge 

claim whether rational or empirical. He makes the point that the rationalists' quest for 

certainty 'is mistaken'. He believes that no particular theory may ever be regarded as 

absolutely certain nor is any scientific theory sacrosanct (p.  360). 

            Popper's position is particularly true of events in the sciences. The history of 

science shows that scientific knowledge grows rapidly with new theories replacing old 

ones. For example, Albert Einstein's relativity theory displaced Newtonian physics 

amongst many scientific and social dislocations brought about by fresh insight, logical 

and rational reasoning.  Notwithstanding the differences in Descartes' and Popper's 

rationalism, both theories are however committed to the eradication of ignorance from 

those that should wear the toga of the learned. Both theories hold criticism as essential 

element to the growth and development of the individual and society. Both convey the 

message of never accepting any doctrine or idea without first subjecting it to rational 

and critical evaluation, hence their importance in the general studies courses taught in 

Nigerian universities. 

Rationalism in General Studies 

            General studies courses were introduced in Nigeria's universities in 1990 by the 

National Universities Commission to among other objectives encourage broader 

knowledge as opposed to narrowness of intellectual specialization (Uduigwomen, 1992:  

p. IV). The general studies course exposes students to courses of liberal education 

through which they can develop and expand their knowledge of their social, cultural and 

natural environment; increases their curiosity and ignite their rational, critical and 

analytic capabilities.  

           Descartes' Rationalism and Popper's critical rationalism are sub-themes in the 

course content of philosophy and human existence. The aim is to expose every 

undergraduate to the power of rational thinking and curiosity which incidentally is the 



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hallmark of philosophical studies. Before the introduction of General Studies courses to 

include philosophy courses, so much emphasis was laid on the study of science and 

technology to the detriment of the humanities. It took the concerted efforts of some 

Nigerian philosophers to point out the abnormality and dangers inherent in a society 

where philosophy is relegated to the background. According to Prof. Udoidem (2006), 

before the intervention of the National Universities Commission (NUC), “so much 

emphasis was led on science and technology without recourse to the foundation of 

science and technology.” For him, not to study philosophy which is the foundation of 

all knowledge is to remain perpetually ignorant even in the subject one claims to know 

(p. 66).    

Rationalism and National Development 

            National development is a composite of the words – national and development. 

National means that which pertains to a nation. A nation is a body of people inhabiting 

the same country. Development according to Caroline Thomas (2005) “is a structural 

transformation; the economic growth of national economies, coupled with a material 

improvement in the lives of their citizens evidenced in poverty reduction and increased 

equity” (p. 318). Thus, national development shall here be seen as the structural, 

economic, material and social transformation of a nation by those inhabiting it.  It refers 

to an increase or expansion of the total volume of production of goods and services of a 

country accompanied by improvement in the scientific and social lives of the people. 

This means that for a nation to be seen as developed, it must be characterized by 

economic productivity, high standard of living, technological advancement, stable 

political order, the availability of basic necessities such as food, clothing, shelter and 

high level of literacy and education. The Nigerian nation is yet to achieve obvious 

success in any of the above developmental indices and this to a large extent, may be 

attributed to the neglect of philosophy and all other courses in the general studies 

curriculum of the nation's educational priorities.  

            The neglect of these courses, especially in the mode of impartation, bearing in 

mind that these courses are among the very first that fresh students are exposed to on 

admission into the university leaves much to be desired. First, students from one or two 

faculties are lumped together to take these courses with a population of between '200' 

and '400' and the lecture theaters for these courses are often too small to contain the 

large population of students. The second challenge is power supply to the universities; 

because of epileptic power supply, the Public Address System in lecture halls seldom 

functions and lecturers in most cases have to shout to be audible. Also, because of the 

large population of students attending these classes some of the lectures are held in open 

spaces within the school such as stadium, car parks or convocation arenas. The result of 

this mockery of teaching and learning is seen in the output of graduates produced over 

the years. It is no secret in Nigeria that 'some' young people go through university 

education and come out more confused and unlearned than they were before admission 

into the university. The Nigerian media calls them “half-baked graduates.” But they are 

simply the unfortunate byproduct of a nation's misplaced priorities. The Nigerian public 



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education system suffocates the fire capable of making proper cakes. No one bakes a 

perfect cake from a lukewarm oven. The question then is where lies the blame? 

Chinua Achebe (1983) in his The Trouble with Nigeria had identified weak 

leadership as the trouble with Nigeria (p. 1). This weakness in leadership, in agreement 

with Achebe, comes as a result of ignorance; ignorance of the true nature of the common 

good and its relationship to private good. Here, the system of government or 

administration is not the cause of underdevelopment as some are wont to believe, rather, 

it is the kind of people that run the system and the type of knowledge they bring in 

running it. Krishnanmurti (1978) had hit the nail on the head when he averred that “the 

individual is of first importance, not the system, and as long as the individual does not 

understand the total process of himself, no system, whether of the left or of the right can 

bring order…. (p. 16) ” 

            Order, peace and development are achievable when there is a fundamental 

change in the constitution of the individuals' mode of thought; a complete 

metamorphosis of the mind, soul and spirit. This has to do with changes in ideas, 

attitudes, values, policies, beliefs, traditions and so on that can stand the test of time. 

These are the challenges that rationalism and critical rationalism seek to address: the 

total liberation of the individuals' mind from the dark world of ignorance to the light of 

rational knowledge to comprehend reality for self and nation. 

Implications for General Studies and National Development 

            The general studies courses taught in tertiary institutions in Nigeria have the 

potential to transform the nation and exorcise it from the degrading class of 'third world' 

to the elite class of 'second' or even 'first world' nations. The myriad problems 

responsible for the nation's underdevelopment could be traced to irrational actions taken 

by those whose charge it was and is to take rational actions. An individual, no matter 

how highly placed can act only as much as he knows. Socrates was absolutely right 

when he averred that knowing the good will amount to doing the good. (See Plato, The 

Apology 7a and Meno 87c). No nation can develop above the intellectual capacity, 

capability and depth of its leadership's intellectual capacity. A nation is therefore a 

perfect reflection of its leadership. 

            Rationalism and Critical rationalism are theories taught in philosophy and 

human existence; as espoused in this paper, rationalism seeks to arouse and fine-tune 

the rational capacity of the one engaged in mental inquiry. Rationalism challenges ideas 

without been confrontational; analyzes and tests ideas in the light of evidence and 

argument. A rationalist does not accept an idea simply because 'that is the tradition' or 

because a charismatic leader has propounded the idea. He/she applies the rule of 'never 

to accept anything as true without evident knowledge; to divide difficulties under 

examination into many possible parts; to conduct his thoughts without bias; and to do 

proper review of every issue before taking a stand'. Critical rationalism, on the other 

hand promotes the idea that development of any sort should require the freedom to 

subject all ideas to rigorous scrutiny and criticism. It promotes the right of an individual 

to criticize administrative or traditional practices and in that way eliminate undesirable 

traditions, customs and practices that are inimical to development. Critical rationalism 



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smoothly resolves differences between people through discussion and argument rather 

than force. In other words, critical rationalism is a way of letting ideas, traditions, and 

taboos perish in the place of man.  

            From the foregoing, it should be obvious that both theories seek to liberate the 

mind of the individual thereby making one a potential change agent in any environment 

one may find oneself.  By making philosophy and human existence a compulsory course 

in universities in Nigeria, the progenitors appreciate the transformative power of 

philosophical learning. Prof. Udoidem (2006) in a paper entitled “Philosophy and the 

Future of Higher Education in Africa”, had reminded African policy makers that if they 

wanted science and technology in Africa, they should remember that Albert Einstein 

said that without the influence of his readings in philosophy, he would not have 

developed the special theory of relativity. He also cited the example of Karl Marx who 

abandoned his law programme to study philosophy which helped him to liberate his 

mind and thought process (p: 67). 

            The implication here is that those desirous for all-round development take the 

study of philosophy and its theories seriously. Even though it is now a compulsory 

course for all the universities in the country, the seriousness which it deserves is yet to 

be seen. Students merely pass the courses to graduate without the intellectual burden to 

know. And those that teach it are most often not committed because of the type of 

environment where they are made to teach; and the governments' inability to address 

educational challenges without engaging in political fisticuff with academic unions is a 

greater challenge.  

            But, despite these challenges, the teacher still has very important roles to play to 

realize the core objective of the general studies courses and to make them attractive to 

students especially the philosophy courses; first, the courses should be taught in the 

language the students can easily comprehend; in other words, philosophical verbosity 

should be minimized as much as practicable. Second, the teachers should stimulate the 

curiosity of students by analyzing prevailing existential themes of the society vis-à-vis 

philosophical concepts and third, make students realize that everyone is a philosopher 

provided they seek to know the how and why of all things in the universe.  Curiosity 

has never failed to engineer all-round development.    

  

Conclusion      

            To achieve the aim for the introduction of general studies course in the nations' 

universities, those charged with the responsibility of developing the mental and rational 

abilities of Nigerian students should show commitment to their charge. School 

administrators should equally endeavour to employ more lecturers to teach these 

courses. A situation where one lecturer is made to teach crowds of students does not 

augur well for intellectual development of the students. The teacher is equally over-

worked and stressed. The employment of more teachers for general studies courses will 

also solve the problem of space and overcrowding. The paper also advises that 

everything should be done to halt holding general studies courses in stadiums and open 



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spaces. Rationalism and critical rationalism are theories that demand intuitive and 

logical reasoning; these cannot be achieved in crowded, open and noisy spaces. If the 

nation must develop, its young people should be given the necessary privileges and 

opportunities to develop their rational capacities and capabilities and it can be done by 

providing them with the appropriate environments to think and study.  

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Krishnanmurti, J. (1978). Education and significance of life. London: Victor GoIIancz 

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Ozumba, G.O. (2000). “Isms in Philosophy”. In Uduigwomen, A. F. & Ozumba, G.O.  

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            Concise introduction to philosophy and logic. Calabar: Centaur Publishers. 

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